This section defines key communication terms and concepts that students will likely encounter in their academic programs. The section provides a common lexicon for students and faculty to use when designing and completing communicative assignments and providing and discussing feedback. For tips and tutorials on how to improve in these areas, please consult the ACL Lab Online SharePoint site.
An abstract is a short, self-contained paragraph that gives an overview of a written product's thesis, main points, conclusion, and recommendations. Readers use abstracts to decide whether to read the written product and/or determine its utility for a research effort. An abstract is usually 150 to 250 words; authors should write it after a paper is complete.
Senior Service Colleges (SSC) and institutions of Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) need a fresh approach to the role of research and writing in preparing senior officers for strategic responsibility. SSC students have the insights and abilities to become some of the most important contributors to ideas on national security, yet they are often hampered by lack of preparation and the assumption that they cannot write, nor learn to write, in ways that could affect the strategic landscape. Changing the culture of JPME to prioritize the transformation of SSC students from warriors to "warrior-scholars" will help JPME to better serve students, the Services, and the Nation. Though JPME is often criticized for shortcomings, actionable guidance for meaningful change is seldom offered. Four considerations are recommended in support of a culture in which SSC student scholarship is valued, encouraged, and nurtured to produce well-informed strategic leaders who can think and are capable of writing effectively at will.1
1Abstract for Larry D. Miller and Laura A. Wackwitz, "Strategic Leader Research: Answering the Call," Joint Force Quarterly, 97, (2nd Quarter, 2020), 39-46.
An annotated bibliography is an organized list of sources (with associated citations) that briefly summarizes and evaluates each source, including how the source may be useful for a research project. Writing an annotated bibliography can help a researcher think critically about their sources and prove the quality of their research sources. An annotated bibliography can be part of a larger research project or a stand-alone product.
Applied communication focuses on the study of an issue or problem with the primary purpose of identifying solutions and recommendations to address the issue. The hallmarks of applied communication are the study of topics with strategic relevance and identifying ways to improve the practice of communication. Scholars and practitioners typically look through an applied lens because of a desire to conduct research that makes a difference and impacts those outside academia. Students ground their applied communication in theory as a way to find ways to communicate recommendations and connect them to stakeholders related to the strategic issue.
Well-reasoned arguments elevate and strengthen communication. An argument is a defensible position or claim (also called thesis), in which authors support the argument with well-documented and articulated evidence. Authors must (a) clearly articulate the arguments advanced, (b) identify the intellectual roots of their work, (c) ground declarative statements in appropriate evidence, (d) organize arguments in a fashion conducive to deductive reasoning and enhanced reader understanding, and, in the process (e) acknowledge and address counter arguments.
The Assertion-Support-Analysis (A-S-A) model is an effective way to structure paragraphs.
See also, the "Assertion-Support-Analysis (ASA) Framework" page.
The audience is the recipient or target of a communicative effort. Knowing the audience helps communicators make decisions about what information to include, how to arrange it, and what kind of supporting details are necessary to inform or persuade the reader or listener. An effective communicator must analyze their intended audience to learn what they already know, what they need to know, why they need to know it, and how they can help the audience. Understanding the audience's interests and attitudes also helps the communicator tailor the content, language, and style of their communication in a way that helps achieve the intended outcome.
A bibliography is an alphabetically ordered listing of references that facilitates quick identification of sources in a document. Footnotes normally precede Bibliographies by footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical citations in the body of paper. Unless the course author's directions say otherwise, DDE course papers typically do not include a bibliography. Students may prepare a preliminary bibliography of relevant materials to help guide their research process.
Following the introduction, the body of the paper presents evidence in a logical sequence in a series of well-structured body paragraphs that convince the reader of the validity of the thesis. In other words, body paragraphs elaborate on and explain the main points of the thesis. Body paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence that describes what the paragraph; each paragraph expands on only one topic. In argumentative writing, topic sentences typically serve as the assertion in the body paragraph, and echo one of the main points of the argument.
A citation is a reference to the source of information in a communicative product. Citations give proper credit to the authors of words or ideas students have used in the paper, establish credibility that the work is part of a broader body of knowledge, and provide others with the information necessary to locate cited sources.
See also, the "Citations" page.
Clarity is of utmost importance in national security communication. Communicators can improve clarity by using active voice, strong verbs, transitional words, and parallel constructions, while avoiding vague words, jargon, and nominalizations (i.e., the noun form of verbs). Using simple, direct language in short sentences can also improve clarity.
Coherence refers to macro-level flow and unity where all ideas work together as a unified whole. Essentially, it is the organization and progression of ideas and how clear and easy those ideas are to understand. In coherent communication, the audience can follow easily from one major idea to the next without confusing jumps in the communicator's train of thought. A communicator can build coherence by crafting outlines and reverse outlines, clear thesis statements, and topic sentences; ensuring all ideas in a paragraph relate to the topic sentence and all topic sentences relate to the thesis statement; analyzing the audience and purpose of a communication product; and enlisting peer reviews.
Similar to coherence, cohesion refers to micro-level flow and unity where ideas link together at the sentence level. Cohesion helps build coherence by making relationships between ideas evident and clear. Without cohesion, the audience must make connections between apparently disconnected ideas. A communicator can strengthen cohesion by using transitions, parallel structures, reference words (e.g., this, which, it), repeated words, etc.
The goal of concision is to communicate an idea using only the number of words necessary to convey it clearly. Concise communication is livelier and easier for the audience to digest, while wordiness is harder to understand. To communicate concisely, authors should delete words that do not add meaning, such as "there are" or "actually," and redundant phrases, such as "end result." Communicators can also look for ways to reduce wordy phrases to a single word, such as changing "in the event of" to "if."
A well-written conclusion in a paper or presentation does more than simply summarize the thesis and main points; it synthesizes the key points and explains the significance, broader context, or implications of the argument. A conclusion should not introduce new information.
A content note provides supplemental information that relates to but is slightly outside the scope of a paper's argument. A content note should not include information essential to the paper's argument. It appears as a footnote at the bottom of a page and includes source documentation as appropriate. A reader should always read content notes, as they may contain useful insights or information.
Consequently, a second force consists of internal stakeholders who expand those formal duties with opinions of other, non-written responsibilities. For example, superiors, subordinates, and peers within the organization expect senior leaders to behave in ways that advance that group's personal interests.13
13 The alignment between personal and organizational interests is a critical leadership function. Peter Senge suggests that such alignment is the essence of an organizational vision. Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York: Currency, 2006), 191-215.
Data visualization is the presentation of data in pictorial or graphical formats, such as charts, tables, graphs, geospatial maps, infographics, and dashboards, to communicate complex data relationships and data-driven insights. Data visualizations can generate ideas, identify patterns and trends, illustrate ideas, and tell a story. Well-crafted data visualizations have proper labeling and accurate focus and contextualization. Poorly crafted data visualizations misrepresent or distort data, which can result in the audience misinterpreting the information.
The strength of a paper or presentation depends on the strength and sufficiency of the evidence to support its arguments and develop the overall thesis. Authors support each main point with high quality evidence derived from credible sources. Credible evidence (a) grounds itself in valid, reliable and properly referenced information, (b) supports additional evidence, (c) assumes false evidence prior to its incorporation—by looking at the negative, authors can find flaws in their own reasoning and develop arguments to refute counterclaims, (d) clearly and logically connects to the thesis or claim, and (e) places itself in context within the larger professional and academic discussion.
Evidence may come from primary or secondary sources. Primary sources are original materials on which authors base subsequent research. They present information in its original form, that other writers have neither interpreted, condensed, nor evaluated by other writers. Primary sources may include personal accounts, original contemporary research, or government documents. Secondary sources provide commentary upon, interpretation of, or analysis of primary sources. They put primary sources in context. Secondary sources can include scholarly books, articles, and biographies. For example, the US National Security Strategy is a primary source, while a think tank's critical analysis of the US National Security Strategy would constitute a secondary source.
Evaluating sources is a critical component of finding, collecting, and analyzing evidence to support an argument. To evaluate the strength and appropriateness of a source, consider its authority (who wrote the material?), accuracy (is this fact or opinion?), currency (does it capture contemporary thinking?), objectivity (for what purpose did the author create it?), and coverage (is it relevant?).
Artificial intelligence (AI) tools use artificial intelligence and large language models to generate original text, images, movies, and music from a prompt. ChatGPT, one of the most widely known generative AI tools, works by analyzing a large dataset of text and learning the patterns and relationships between words and phrases, which the system calls tokens, to create a response to a question the user has posed. In other words, most AI writing tools, like ChatGPT, generate text using the mathematical relationships between the tokens in extremely large training databases. The output of these generative AI tools often gives the illusion of comprehension and agency, but these tools have neither.
In its current stage, generative AI has several limitations. For example, it is limited by the data to which it has access. Many modern models have access to the broader internet, which often includes information from less credible sources, like social media. In addition, the content they generate is not always accurate and may include unrelated or made-up sources or improper citations. The utility of generative text-based AI tools depends on the quality of the questions and a user's ability to evaluate the content the AI produced and the sources it used to generate that content.
See Section VII for guidance on citing AI-generated content and Appendix A for guidance on permissible use of generative AI tools.
Headings demarcate paper sections to facilitate readability. Headings logically follow a paper's organization and signal important transitions for the reader. Short papers do not require headings, they but may be helpful. See Section IX for formatting headings.
A hook is a statement at the beginning of a paper or presentation that grabs the audience's attention and makes them want to continue reading or listening. It should relate to the thesis. Crafting an effective hook requires understanding the audience and what will resonate with them and the purpose of the communicative effort. Some common hooks in strategic leader communication include revealing a misconception or knowledge gap, an interesting fact, statistics, and strategic significance of the topic. In oral presentations, personal or humanizing anecdotes can also be effective. NOTE: Due to the low word count DDE students have with which to answer the questions in the course papers, it is usually not necessarily or appropriate to use a hook in DDE writing assignments.
The introduction sets up the paper or presentation for the audience. It should hook their attention, provide the strategic context for the topic, and preview the paper or presentation's argument, while avoiding overgeneralizations, non-essential background information, and lengthy descriptions. Typically, the introduction ends with the thesis statement that outlines the paper or presentation's structure.
In communication, a message is the key point or bottom line that a communicator wants to convey to their audience. In academic writing, the core message is the thesis statement. In professional communication, it is the key takeaway. How the author has framed a message an impact how the audience perceives and interprets information. Framing a message that is appropriate and effective for the intended audience requires analyzing that audience and the purpose of the communicative effort.
A narrative is a compelling story line that can explain events convincingly and from which the audience draws inferences. At the strategic level, a strategic narrative is the means for political actors to construct a shared meaning of the past, present, and future of international politics to shape the behavior of domestic and international actors. A narrative is relatively enduring and drives communication themes and messages. Themes are distinct, unifying ideas that support the narrative and provide guidance and continuity for messaging, while messages are discreet, tailored information for specific audiences and delivered through words, actions, or images.
Effective organization maximizes argument development, message impact, and audience understanding. Presenting information in a concise, logically organized way helps the audience to quickly and easily digest information. Common organizational schemes include:
Outlines are a useful tool to organize ideas, visualize the potential structure, flesh out and develop points, and logically connect information to the thesis before writing a paper or presentation. Outlines organize information in the order in which the author will present information in a paper or presentation with the main points and evidence that support the thesis. It is helpful to have a working thesis statement before beginning an outline.
Some common types of outlines are topic outlines, sentence outlines, question outlines, and reverse outlines. A topic outline organizes main ideas using only words or phrases without any details, while a sentence outline uses complete sentences that fully express each main point. These sentences often become topic sentences. A question outline structures the outline around questions about the main ideas to help a communicator develop topic sentences. Lastly, a reverse outline creates the outline from a draft to make visible its structure and to ensure the main points connect to and support the thesis in the of the revision process.
To draft a question outline:
To create a reverse outline:
Authors who paraphrase use their own words to express another's ideas. Paraphrasing is an important art to master, as it enables communicators to incorporate other's ideas to strengthen their claims while giving the original source proper credit. Paraphrase requires a full re-stating of another author's position in new words; one cannot simply rearrange words into a new order or replace words with synonyms in the original order. Authors should strive to reach a higher level of Bloom's Taxonomy by proving the ability to summarize the concepts in different words. Effective use of paraphrase prevents authors from overusing direct quotations, a practice which detracts from an author's argument, and most evaluators associate such overuse with weak writing. A citation must accompany paraphrased text.
Point of view is the perspective from which the author writes an essay. In academic writing, papers are generally in the third person point of view, where the author does not refer to themselves. Using the third person point of view demonstrates grounding in research, rather than one's personal perspective, giving it more credibility and objectivity. There may be times (and academic disciplines) when first person point of view is appropriate, such as reflective essays or proper language usage. For example, "I propose" is preferable to "The writer of this essay proposes."
Quoting is using the exact words of another author. Students should only use quotations when the original author has written or said something in such a way that to paraphrase it would weaken the quality or unique character of the author's words. This should occur only rarely; paraphrasing is almost always the better option. Block quotations are quotes longer than four lines of text. Authors should indent and single-space block quotations not use quotation marks for them. NOTE: due to the length constraints for DDE papers, students should refrain from using long quotations.
Students should use direct quotations sparingly so that the text primarily reflects one's own words and thinking. Too many quotations can clutter a text or interrupt its flow. When using quotes, communicators should use quotation marks (except in block quotes), provide context and lead-in for the text, and properly attribute and cite it. See Section IX for formatting a block quotation.
Research is the systematic inquiry into a subject to create new knowledge and/or to use existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies, and understandings. It involves asking a question; collecting, documenting, analyzing, and interpreting information using suitable methodologies; and, reporting the results. Good writers ground their research in historical and/or theoretical concepts that surround the issue under investigation, high-quality evidence from source materials, and detailed and accurate source documentation.
Conducting research builds cognitive and communication skills expected of strategic leaders, such as the ability to identify, structure, and scope a complex problem/question; analyze, synthesize, and evaluate relevant information; and draw conclusions and make recommendations for a decision-maker based on that information.
Summarizing boils down the main points into a more concise version of the original text. It involves deleting extraneous material, highlighting key points, synthesizing overall meaning, and condensing primary ideas, while remaining faithful to the original source's meaning and emphasis. Summarizing is a useful tool for providing background, context, or supporting evidence. A citation is a must for summarized text.
The thesis is the primary argument or overarching position in a paper. A strong thesis is (a) interesting—it captures attention by addressing an important issue, (b) arguable—it addresses a topic worthy of interrogation or debate (c) defensible—has support in grounded evidence, and (d) clear—it is concise, with enough specificity to avoid over-generalizations and vague propositions.
A thesis statement is a one or two sentence articulation of the thesis. Located near the beginning of the paper, a thesis statement is often the response to an inquiry (e.g., assignment prompt, research question). A closed thesis statement consists of the central claim, or position, and the reasons that support the claim in the order in which the author presents them, while an open statement only consists of the claim. These supporting reasons constitute an essay map, which signals to the reader the structure and sequence of the argument, helping the audience follow the argument. In a closed thesis statement, the essay map is part of the thesis statement, while in an open thesis statement, the essay map often follows the thesis statement.
The thesis statement is marked in green, underlined text.
The essay Map is marked in blue, bold text.
Economic sanctions are ineffective vehicles for achieving political objectives at the international level because they often strengthen an adversary's resolve, contribute to corruption and organized crime, and create humanitarian crises.
Transitions establish relationships and logical connections between ideas in sentences, paragraphs, and sections. They are more than verbal decorations; transitions are words and phrases with particular meanings that tell the audience how to think about and react to the information in a particular way. Transitions promote coherence and cohesion in a written product or oral presentation.
Active voice is when the subject of the sentence is performing the action. Passive voice is when the subject of the sentence is receiving the action.
The subject performs the action on the object.
"Strategic leaders must use language judiciously."
The subject is acted upon by the object.
"Language must be used judiciously by strategic leaders."
The choice of active vs. passive voice focuses attention on particular elements of a sentence. The author should use voice to direct attention to the part of the sentence that is the most important. Active voice is generally the stronger, clearer, and more economical choice; therefore, when in doubt, students should opt for the active voice. However, passive voice, when used appropriately, can add to sentence strength, increase understanding, and direct the reader's attention to important elements that active voice construction may downplay.