Example of a Thesis with Road Map
USAWC faculty use the terms "Essay Map" or "Road Map" interchangeably. These terms mean the same thing.
This sitemap contains a comprehensive list of every page that makes up the DEP CAD Addendum.
HomeStrategic leaders always have limited time, and finding time to negotiate USAWC distance program studies can be a struggle. Being able to carefully read and process information requires skill, practice, and sustained commitment. Reading well—with efficiency, exceptional comprehension, and a critical eye—is an essential and necessary competency for those who make decisions and offer informed recommendations to others.
Effective leaders employ critical reading strategies to access diverse texts with confidence and:
Whether they are “fast readers” or not, one important skill strategic leaders, busy executives, academics, and astute graduate students all practice college-level reading, sometimes known as “predatory reading.”
When pressed for time and dealing with a large volume of new and often complex subjects, students cannot simply approach this material in the same way as if they were reading for pleasure. Neither do they have time to read the same passage over and over. Instead, DDE students need to develop the practice of identifying and focusing on the critical parts of the material they need to read. These steps are helpful to commit to memory:
The Army War College (AWC) discourages the use of first-person or second-person point of view in AWC essays. While in some instances, first-person case may be appropriate in a forum post, essay writing is more formal and therefore, students should write their essays in the third person.
Following is an example of how to structure 5-paragraph USAWC essay written using the Assertion-Support-Analysis (ASA) format:
Intro Paragraph - BLUF (Bottom Line up Front)
Main Body Paragraph 1
Main Body Paragraph 2
Main Body Paragraph 3
Conclusion
A thesis statement is a one or two sentence articulation of the thesis. It reflects the student’s stance on the topic and must be “arguable.” It is part of the Introduction paragraph (see below). Articulated near the beginning of the paper, a thesis statement is usually an overarching response to an inquiry on a particular topic (e.g., an essay prompt or a research question). An essay map or “road map” follows the thesis statement, providing readers with a clear indication of ALL of the main points in the paper in the order they will appear in the paper. Sometimes the essay map is present within the thesis statement, but sometimes trying to include everything in one sentence makes the thesis statement unwieldy. The essay map provides the reader with a map of the route the essay’s argument will travel.
Click here for an example of a Thesis with an Essay Map / Road Map
The introduction paragraph provides the setup for the paper, orients the reader to the paper’s thesis, includes a specific thesis statement, and establishes the paper’s structure by briefly previewing all the main points in the student’s argument. The introduction contains the thesis statement that directly answers the question(s) in the essay prompt, and the essay road map discussed above. It is acceptable to precede the thesis statement with a “state of the world” scene-setter sentence, which may involve a short quote, and/or background on the subject. However, USAWC faculty recommend using only 10-15% of the essay’s total word count for the introduction, and the maximum word count of USAWC essays are intentionally tight, to mimic limitations that are often the norm for senior leader writing. Therefore, students should limit any information that does not directly relate to answering the essay prompt in the introduction. One should only add in something extra to the introduction after the rest of the paper is complete with clearly supported arguments.
DDE USAWC students must include an essay map-or “road map” for course essays. It lets the reader know what to expect as the author identifies the main points they will use to advance their thesis. The introduction should have a Bottom Line Up Front (BLUF) approach that includes all of the key assertions (arguments) the student will discuss in the subsequent main body paragraphs. This makes it easy for readers to follow the author's argument. BLUF writing is especially important when presenting ideas to busy senior leaders and other time-challenged audiences, because senior leaders may not have time to read more than the introductory paragraph of a paper; if the introduction includes the BLUF, those senior leaders will still know the gist of the argument put forth in the rest of the paper.
For the majority of USAWC short essays (500-700 words), the reader should be able to understand all the key points of the argument by simply reading the opening paragraph.
Citations in the opening paragraph: The general rule is to refrain from using citations in the Introduction paragraph. An exception to this rule is if the student chooses to use a short, pithy opening quote. If choosing a quote as an opening statement, however, the author should remember that this quote counts against their word count for the essay, and may be an unnecessary waste of precious resources.
Click here for an Example of an Introduction Paragraph
The Assertion – Support – Analysis (ASA) Framework is the central organizing principle of USAWC Main Body paragraphs. (It is also the organizing concept for initial Forum posts for most of the first-year courses.)
NOTE: Plagiarism is a concern for many students, but over-citing can sometimes happen, too. General rules of thumb for citing in the main body paragraphs are as follows:
Click here for an explanation of the parts of the ASA framework
Click here for an example of a paragraph written using the ASA framework
The final paragraph should restate the thesis statement and also briefly summarize the author’s key arguments and takeaways, or the “so what” of the argument for strategic leaders. Students should remind the reader about the main points of the essay, and how they have answered the question prompt. Note that a conclusion does not introduce new evidence. A good conclusion is usually only about 10% of the total word count of the essay. Overly long conclusions come at the expense of analysis within the body paragraphs.
Click here for an Example of a Conclusion
Click here for the standard rubric for argumentative essays used in the Distance Education Program.
Note: This is a generalized rubric. Each course tailors this rubric to their specific material. However, from this rubric students should be able to see how the short essay fundamentals above combine with essay content to result in the essay grade. USAWC evaluators grade based on content, organization, and style.
An outline is a tool to help organize essay writing. AWC faculty highly recommend that using outlines in preparing short essays. Since students are typically constrained by a word or page count, an outline will help ensure that the essay addresses all parts of the question and unfolds in a logical manner. In some DEP courses, outlines are a “Formative Assessment” tool - an ungraded means for faculty instructors to provide guidance and feedback to students on their essay development and structure. In other cases, FIs may allow students to provide them with a copy of an outline for instructors to review if students need assistance.
Click here for a more detailed discussion of the Fundamentals of an Outline
USAWC faculty use the terms "Essay Map" or "Road Map" interchangeably. These terms mean the same thing.
Note the “tight” and focused nature of the above introduction. This is the standard students should strive for. As discussed, it is also acceptable to include a scene-setter “state of the world” sentence preceding this, possibly with a quote (which should, of course, be cited). However, due to the word count constrained nature of USAWC essays, one should only add such scene setters after having written the rest of the essay and ensuring there is a clear and well-supported argument.
Here is the Thesis, which answers the overarching question(s) from the essay prompt:
The tenets of realism inform the 2017 National Security Strategy (NSS).
After the thesis statement, include the “Road Map” to the assertions that will follow in the essay. These assertions will further answer the questions in the essay prompt. Note that each of these assertions is answering part of the question. Each main body paragraph will then start by once again laying out the assertion, ideally in slightly different or expanded words.
Here is the first assertion:
The document lays out a strategy of “principled realism,” framing the United States as a self-interested actor seeking power to secure its interests in an anarchic world.
Here is the second assertion:
According to liberal international relations theory, this “America First” approach risks unwinding US alliances and undervaluing the cooperative benefits of multilateral institutions.
Note how this introduction gives the reader--in this case, the evaluator--a fairly comprehensive understanding of the argument in each of the subsequent paragraphs.
The Assertion – Support – Analysis Framework is the central organizing concept of USAWC essays and forum posts.
Students should use an Assertion-Support-Analysis (A-S-A) model for main body paragraph construction of written requirements, and in formulating many of the online asynchronous forum posts. Each paragraph should include:
Note: Students will generally find that combining all A-S-A elements into one paragraph is the most expedient way to construct essay main-body paragraphs. However, a separate paragraph containing analysis only may be better suited for longer essays and research papers.
Click here for an Example of a main body paragraph written with ASA Return to Short Essay Fundamentals
Following is an annotated Example of a USAWC short essay written in the standard template for DEP writing assignments.
You may also view this example as a PDF file by clicking here.
You may view the Argumentative Essay Rubric example on this page, or click the button to download a copy of it.
Download Argumentative Essay Rubric| Performance Dimension | Exceeds Standards A+ A A- |
Meets Standards B+ B |
Fails to Meet Standards B- C D |
| CONTENT Introduction (10%) |
Introduction captures the reader’s attention and presents a hard-hitting and very clear and concise thesis that directly answers the essay prompt; very clearly establishes the paper’s structure by previewing main points and organization of the paper (essay map). | Introduction presents a mostly clear and concise thesis that answers the essay prompt. A discernable essay map adequately previews main points and organization of the paper. | Position is vague. Organization of argument is missing, vague, or not consistently maintained. |
| CONTENT Argument/ Assessment (30%) |
Fully answers all aspects of the question asked, presenting a complete and credible argument/assessment. Supporting evidence is highly relevant to the argument, terms/evaluation criteria are defined, and evidence is presented accurately and completely. Main points clearly support the thesis and are accurately described using an ASA format. Analysis reflects critical thinking, ties supporting evidence to assertions, and makes a persuasive argument. Competing ideas or divergent views are acknowledged. | Sufficiently answers the question asked to achieve learning outcomes, presenting a recognizable argument/assessment. Supporting evidence is relevant to the argument, terms/evaluation criteria are defined, and evidence is presented accurately. Main points support the thesis and are adequately described. Some ASA elements may not be present or are unclear. Connection to the overall argument/assessment is mostly clear and complete or may have minor errors. Analysis supports assertions and reflects critical thinking and synthesis of course topics. | Does not answer the question asked, nor achieve learning outcomes. Supporting evidence is not relevant to the argument or only relevant for some aspects; terms/evaluation criteria are not defined, and evidence is inaccurate. Supporting points are not clearly articulated and/or have incorrect or incomplete ASA elements. The argument/assessment, and relationship between thesis and supporting points, is unclear or inaccurate, major errors in the logic are present. |
| CONTENT Conclusion (10%) |
Conclusion is clearly stated and consistent with the thesis, briefly summarizes key arguments and provides key takeaways (why it matters) for strategic leaders. | Conclusion is stated and mostly consistent with the thesis, briefly summarizes key arguments and provides key takeaways (why it matters) for strategic leaders. | Conclusion may not be clear and the connections to the thesis and research are incorrect or unclear or just a repetition of the findings without explanation. Underlying logic has major flaws; connection to position is not clear. |
| ORGANIZATION (25%) |
Paper is coherently organized, and the logic is very easy to follow (ASA). Effective organization maximizes argument development, message impact and reader understanding; introduction sets up the argument, main body presents evidence and analysis that flows from the thesis and essay map to clear topic sentences, and transitions between key points; argument is bookended with a conclusion that drives home importance for current and future thought. | The paper is generally well organized and most of the argument is easy to follow (ASA). Organization supports argument development, message impact and reader understanding; introduction sets up the argument, main body presents evidence and analysis that flows from the thesis and essay map to clear topic sentences; main body is bookended with a conclusion that drives home importance for current and future thought. | Paper is poorly organized and difficult to read – does not flow logically from one part to another (lack of ASA). |
| STYLE (25%) |
There are no spelling or grammatical errors and terminology is clearly defined. Writing reflects an exemplary professional academic tone, is clear, concise, and persuasive. Writing is tight and primarily active, reflecting excellent paraphrasing and very judicious use of quotes. Formatting and citations are consistent with essay instructions and conform to CAD standards and the Turabian or Chicago Manual of Style. | There are only a few minor spelling or grammatical errors, or terms that are not clearly defined. Writing reflects professional academic tone with minimal use of jargon and acronyms; mostly clear but may lack conciseness. Writing is primarily active and reflects good paraphrasing without overuse of direct quotes. Formatting and citations are generally consistent with essay instructions and generally conform to CAD standards and the Turabian or Chicago Manual of Style. | There are numerous spelling and/or grammatical errors; technical terms may not be defined or are poorly defined. Writing is too informal, lacks clarity and conciseness, with poor paraphrasing and/or overuse of direct quotations. Formatting is not consistent with essay instructions, citations are missing, and neither reflect CAD standards and the Turabian or Chicago Manual of Style. Word count does not fall within the +/- 10%. An F is awarded for academic misconduct and plagiarism. |
Click here for a Template of a USAWC DEP OutlineClick here for an Example of a USAWC DEP Outline
An outline is a tool to help organize writing. Since students must typically limit themselves by word count in DDE USAWC written requirements, an outline will help ensure the essay addresses all parts of the question. In some of the DDE courses, outlines are a “formative assessment” tool – an ungraded means for faculty instructors to provide guidance and feedback to students on their essay.
Most well-written papers flow from an outline. Developing an outline should be standard practice for USAWC students when drafting essay papers. There are many ways to prepare an outline: mind-mapping, jotting down ideas and then organizing them logically, or even writing in stream-of-consciousness, then going back to organize/outline the resulting thoughts. In any case, students should be sure to carefully analyze the prompt (question) and ensure the outline answers each part of the question.
An Outline provides a preliminary sketch of the paper’s logic and organization, including the main points and types of evidence that will support the thesis.
These are the steps to create an outline based on a question/prompt:
Creating a good outline will usually take the bulk of essay-writing time. The recommended order of writing an outline is: Body, Introduction, Conclusion. The Introduction introduces the Body of your essay [A, B, and C]. Most students find it helpful to first decide on the assertions which form the Body, then write the thesis and essay map that will comprise the bulk of the Introduction.
Notes:
Notes:
*Note: footnotes are optional and do not count toward your word count limit for outlines. Outlines that are over 60% of the essay’s maximum word count will be returned by your FI without comment.
________________________
1 Leonard Wong and Stephen J. Gerras, "Culture and Military Organizations," in The Culture of Military Organizations, ed. P. Mansoor and W. Murray (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 6.
2 Carlo D'Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2002), 352.
3 D'Este, Eisenhower, 364.
4 Wong and Gerras, "Culture and Military Organizations," 5.
5 D’Este, Eisenhower, 361.
6 D’Este, Eisenhower, 376.
Read the CAD Pages 23-24 for an in-depth explanation of Plagiarism.
Taking a large segment of another author’s work and inserting a few of one’s own words such as “the” or “when”, such as in the example below, is also unacceptable:
Spread of knowledge, the dispersion of advanced technologies, and the movements of people. When combined with...Everything OTHER than the underlined words above is not the student’s idea. This practice is unacceptable. In this case, it would be better just to use the quote, although fully paraphrasing the information and citing it would be a better practice.
So how can students avoid plagiarism?
A frequently observed problem with USAWC students in their initial classes is an overreliance on quotations. In general, students should seek to paraphrase wherever possible – using their own words to express another’s ideas – rather than using quotations. Students should generally only use quotations when the specific words used by the original author are of such a unique character that the words themselves provide flavor and context for the information presented. It is important to note however, that this does not circumvent the need to cite properly or to place quotation marks around direct lifts longer than 5 words. It is also important to note that students often mistake the words for being such unique character, when, in fact, with a little effort, they could paraphrase the information to be as good or perhaps even better than the original.
Including an author’s words verbatim without quotation marks (or block quote indentation) is plagiarism even if accompanied by a source citation. Nor should students seek to replace only a word or two and pass this off as their own paraphrased ideas (see plagiarism below). For both paraphrase and quotation, students must carefully provide complete source documentation information.
Students will almost always find that paraphrasing allows them to answer the questions posed in USAWC written assignments much more directly than by trying to apply a quotation that originally conveyed a different idea in a different context. The art of paraphrasing is important to master; it enables writers to incorporate other’s ideas while giving the original source proper credit. Good writers rely upon paraphrase to strengthen their claims by (a) providing supporting evidence, (b) grounding arguments in intellectual history, (c) exploring issues raised in prior research, and (d) briefly identifying issues that are being supported or refuted. Effective use of paraphrase prevents authors from overuse of direct quotations, a practice which detracts from an author’s argument and is associated with weak writing. In addition, being able to put a concept into one’s own words is a higher form of learning, per Bloom’s Taxonomy, than just quoting the information. Being able to paraphrase means the student comprehends the information well enough to say it differently.
Students should enclose brief quotations in quotation marks (“”) and accompany the quotation with a superscript citation number (footnote number) after the closing quotation mark, as in the following example:
Ike Skelton observed that "our nation showed the ability to persevere."2
2 Skelton, Whispers of Warriors, 79.
For further information about the USAWC standard for footnote format, please refer to the CAD. In general, USAWC footnoting format conforms to The Chicago Manual of Style.
The absence of quotation marks signals a paraphrase, or the author’s use of their own words to restate the concept. Paraphrase requires a re-stating of the author’s position in one’s own words; this does not mean that the author can simply rearrange some words and replace others with synonyms. When paraphrasing, the author should strive to describe the concept in their own words, to help gain fuller comprehension of the topic. Example paraphrase of the above-quoted example:
During the Cold War era, government officials and the American public demonstrated a sustained and impressive commitment in the face of numerous obstacles and fears.3
3 Skelton, Whispers of Warriors, 79.
While the War College encourages the use of full paraphrasing, there are times when students will wish to capture the meaning and spirit of a source. This technique involves paraphrasing to capture the main ideas, and then accompanying this paraphrased section with a partial quotation to portray the character of the original text, as in:
During the Cold War era, government officials and the American public demonstrated a sustained and impressive commitment in the face of numerous obstacles and fears. This commitment is, as Ike Skelton observed, “a great testimony to the character of the American People and the quality of the leaders who guided the Nation through often trying times.”4
4 Skelton, Whispers of Warriors, 79.
Common knowledge, or open-source knowledge, does not require a footnote. For example, to write that US involvement in WW II began in late 1941 and continued until well into 1945 does not require a footnote, even if consulting a source regarding the dates. This kind of information is common knowledge.
If, however, a writer directly quotes, word for word “that US involvement in WW II began in late 1941 and continued well into 1945,” the quote requires a footnote, because it is a quote. One must question, however, why a student would directly quote what is notably common knowledge. Those not well-versed in source documentation risk exposure to charges of sloppy research, bad judgment, poor information, and even plagiarism when they quote from sources excessively. It is important to properly document all quoted or paraphrased sources used in every paper or assignment, but students should strive to contribute their own knowledge, analysis, and critical thinking to the paper, none of which should show up as plagiarism.
It is important to remember that when in the midst of a course, and, after reading several sources, particular information rapidly springs to mind, this does not give license to pass such information off as “common knowledge.” Common knowledge is usually information students already knew when beginning the course.
The USAWC upholds the highest standards of academic integrity. Any activity that compromises the academic integrity of the institution and/or subverts the educational process constitutes academic misconduct and may prompt administrative action, including lowering of a grade, disciplinary action, or disenrollment. Violations of academic integrity typically fall into one of four categories:
See USAWC Memorandum 623-1, Student Assessment, Appendix C for more information. Section for our awards
Students should include a citation for all material that is neither their own idea nor common knowledge. The DEP CAD Addendum’s guidance nests with the CAD guidance on citations and provides detailed information on the proper use of sources and citations to avoid plagiarism for DEP students.
FORUM CITATION FORMAT: Unlike essay written requirements, forum posts use parenthetical citations rather than footnotes. See “Online Discussion Forums” for more on parenthetical citations. The following information is in regard to AWC essays.
The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) 17th Edition is the official style guide of the USAWC. Use the Turabian Manual (the same as the CMOS) or CMOS online to properly format footnote citations. Please note that in addition to citation format, the CMOS also includes formatting for papers, abbreviations, and other formatting questions students may have when preparing their essays for submission. EXAMPLE: Should one use US or U.S. or U. S.? Should one capitalize Black and White, or is it black and white? The CMOS has this information readily available.
For a comprehensive list of the citations students will most often need to use in USAWC writing, including government sources, click here.
FOOTNOTES – NOT ENDNOTES: Unless otherwise directed by faculty, student papers require source documentation via footnotes (vice endnotes or parenthetical formatting). To facilitate readability, footnote numbers should be at the end of the sentence rather than mid-sentence. Only use parenthetical citations in forums.
NOTE: Contrary to CMOS guidelines, DO NOT USE “IBID.” - The USAWC does not use “Ibid.” for repeat citations from the same source, for a number of reasons, but most practically speaking, it is because if a student rearranges the paper, and citations move with those changes, an orphaned Ibid. will very likely result.
To facilitate source documentation clarity, choose from among the four types of footnotes: (1) Single Source, (2) Multiple Source, (3) Repeated Source, and (4) Content.
Here are examples of the different categories for the majority of citations USAWC students will use. Click on the button below a category to view example citations.
See below for examples of book citations:
1 John Collins, America’s Small Wars: Lessons for the Future (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1991), 23.
8 Thomas L. Pangle, The Ennobling of Democracy: The Challenge of the Postmodern Age, Johns Hopkins Series in Constitutional Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 225.
9 Samuel Noory, Dictionary of Pronunciation: Guide to English Spelling and Speech, 4th ed. (New York: Cornwall Books, 1981), 10.
6 Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr. and Richard H. Shultz, Jr., eds., The United States Army: Challenges and Missions for the 1990s (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1991), 30.
26 Mauritania Government, Strategie Nationale de lute contre le terrorisme et la criminalite transnationale [Mauritania Strategy on Terrorism and Transnational Criminality] (Nouakchott, Mauritania: Ministery of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, April 2012), 13.
When incorporating material from a non-English source, provide the citation in the language of origin accompanied by an English translation in brackets. Do this only if you read the source in its original language. When using an English translation, use the “Translated Book” style.
7 Wolfgang Leonhard, Betrayal: The Hitler-Stalin Pact of 1939, trans. Richard D. Bosley (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 211.
13 Bat 21, directed Peter Markle (Culver City, CA: Media Home Entertainment, 1989), VHS.
List the title of the movie (in italics) first. Then follow with the director, production company, and year if possible. Last, list the type of format of the media (DVD, Blu-ray, etc.).
10 Kenneth R. Young, “Into the Wilderness,” in The General’s General: The Life and Times of Arthur MacArthur (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), 119.
11 Max G. Manwaring, “Limited War and Conflict Control,” in Conflict Termination and Military Strategy: Coercion Persuasion, and War, ed. Steven J. Cimbala and Keith A. Dunn (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), 59.
12 J. F. C. Fuller, Grant and Lee (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957), 82, quoted in Roger H. Nye, The Challenge of Command (Wayne, NJ: Avery, 1986), 28.
1 Barbara W. Tuchman, “Generalship,” Parameters 40, no. 4 (Winter 2010-11): 13.
21 Steven Waldman, “Deadbeat Dads,” Newsweek, May 4, 1992, 46.
20 Michael Hinds, “The Texas Congressman Behind the Amendment,” New York Times, June 12, 1992.
31 Yasir Arafat, “Arafat Talks: Marriage, Peace and the Plane Crash: An Exclusive Interview with the PLO Leader,” interview by Tony Clifton, Newsweek, May 4, 1992, 41.
For interviews published in magazines and other periodicals, the basic citation information and style is the same as for all articles from that type of periodical. For interviews, students should include details about the interviewer between the article title and the publication title, separated by commas.
See below for example citations for online sources and electronic media:
17 Thomas E. Ricks, "FDR as a Strategic Analyst of the Balkans,"The Best Defense: Tom Ricks’s Daily Take on National Security, blog, February 5, 2013, http://ricks.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2013/02/05/fdr_as_a_strategic_analyst_of_the_Balkans.
Students should include author name; title of post; blog title or description whether the item is an entry (posted by the author of the site) or a comment (posted by someone else); date of posting; and URL. Cite author name as given (even if it is incomplete or is a pseudonym).
14 Joe Mantegna and Gary Sinise, “PBS’s National Memorial Day Concert,” May 4, 2007, YouTube, video file, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJAj84RUlEs.
15 US Army War College, “Army War College History,” December 7, 2010, US Army War College YouTube Channel, video file, http://www.youtube.com/profile?user=USArmyWarCollege#p/a/u/2/cflH8i1YomM.
16 “Asymmetric Warfare: People’s Tactics and Sun Tzu’s ‘Art of War’,” December 1, 2008, YouTube, video file, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSmwaLrFgqc.
17 Center for Academic Success and Engagement (CSAE), “Ten Traps of Studying” (McLennan, Texas: Baylor University, [date unknown]), 1-2.
Students will use these forms for all web-based media files. They should include the web location and type of media they accessed (audio, video, live video stream, etc.). One may include information about media file types (.wmp, .mp3, .mp4, etc.) if it is particularly relevant to the citation information.
22 Sarah Palin (@SarahPalin), “I can see Russia from my house,” Twitter, August 25, 2011, 10:23 p.m., http://twitter.com/sarahpalinusa.
For Twitter post citations, one should include the writer and/or the screen name of the author, the post as the title, the format, the time of the post, and the URL of the post.
18 The Official Home Page of the United States Army, accessed June 19, 2005, http://www.army.mil.
19 Joe Smith, “Soldier Awarded Purple Heart,” Soldier Stories, United States Army Home Page, May 23, 2005, http://www4.army.mil/ocpa/soldierstories.
Caution: Internet documents are often revised, altered, or moved. Students should include the last date they accessed the document, or the last date of modification, but not both.
See below for examples of military and government citations. NOTE: the standard procedure for military and government publications is to abbreviate as much as possible.
22 Hearing before the Select Special Subcommittee on War Powers, Committee on Foreign Relations,100th Cong., 2nd sess., July 13, 1988, 11.
9 Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs, Examining U.S. Security Cooperation and Assistance: Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., 2022, https://www.foreign.senate.gov/hearings/examining-us-security-cooperation-and-assistance-031022.
3 Africa: Securing U.S. Interests, Preserving Strategic Options: Hearing Before the Armed Services Committee, 117th Cong. 5 (2021) (statement of General Stephen J. Townsend, Commander, U.S. Africa Command), https://www.africom.mil/document/33691/usafricom-statement-for-record-hasc-20-apr-2021-gen-townsendpdf.
23 Senator Edward M. Kennedy, speaking on National Intelligence Estimate–Iraq, September 29, 2006, to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, Congressional Record, S10523.
27 Ronald O’Rourke, China Naval Modernization: Implications for US Naval Capabilities— Background and Issues for Congress (Washington, DC: US Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, July 17, 2009), 20.
28 Marshall C. Erwin, Intelligence Issues for Congress, CRS Report No. RL33539 (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, 2013), 49, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL33539.pdf.
23 Department of Defense, Information Assurance Training, Certification, and Workforce Management, DoD Directive 8570.01-M (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 2005), http://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dodm/857001m.pdf.
24 Joint Chiefs of Staff, Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the United States, P 1 (Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2017), https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp1.pdf.
22 Exec. Order No. 13655, 3 C.F.R. 339 (2014), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR- 2014-title3-vol1/pdf/CFR-2014-title3-vol1.pdf.
28 US Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1998 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1997), 4.
24 Department of the Army, Sniper Training, FM 23-10 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1995), http://www.bits.de/NRANEU/others/amd-us-archive/fm_23-10%2894%29.pdf.
2 Department of the Army, Offense and Defense, ADP 3-90 (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 2019), 3-1, https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/ARN18377_ADP%203-90%20FINAL%20WEB.pdf.
24 “Memorandum from the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Schwartz) to the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (Warnke), April 22, 1968,” Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS) 1964–1968, vol. XXI, Near East Region; Arabian Peninsula (Washington, DC, 2000), doc. 143.
24 Eric B. Schoomaker, US Army Surgeon General, “Fragmentary Order 6 to Operation Order 09-75 (Novel a(H1N1) Influenza Vaccine Immunization Program),” Fort Sam Houston, TX, US Army Medical Command, March 17, 2010.
29 US Government Accountability Office, Special Operations Forces: Report to Congressional Committees (Washington, DC: US Government Accountability Office, September 2007), 3.
25 Cathleen A. Berrick, Homeland Security: DHS’s Progress and Challenges in Key Areas of Maritime, Aviation, and Cybersecurity, GAO-10-106 (Washington, DC: Government Accountability Office, 2009), 7–9.
22 Department of Defense, Identification (ID) Cards Required by the Geneva Convention DoD Instruction 1000.01 (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 2012), 36.
4 Joint Chiefs of Staff, Doctrine for the Armed Forces of the United States, JP 1 (Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2017), IV-3, https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/National_Military_Strategy_2015.pdf.
1 Teresa M. Takai, “Adoption of the National Information Exchange Model within the Department of Defense” (official memorandum, Washington, DC: Department of Defense, March 28, 2013), https://dodcio.defense.gov/Portals/0/Documents/2013-03-28%20Adoption%20of%20the%20NIEM%20within%20the%20DoD.pdf.
2 Eric B. Schoomaker, “Fragmentary Order 6 to Operation Order 09-75 (Novel a(H1N1) Influenza Vaccine Immunization Program),” (fragmentary order, U.S. Army Medical Command, Fort Sam Houston, TX: March 17, 2010).
3 MILPER Message Number 19-343, “Battalion Command Assessment Program (BCAP) Participant Attendance in Association with the Fiscal Year (FY 21) Lieutenant Colonel (LTC) Army Command/Key Billet Boards Announcement,” October 24, 2019, 7:20 AM, https://www.hrc.army.mil/mil/PrintPreview/Milper/19-343.
22 Department of Defense, Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of the United States of America (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 2018), https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf.
44 Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy of the United States of America (Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2015), https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/National_Military_Strategy_2015.pdf.
15 Joint Chiefs of Staff, Description of the 2018 National Military Strategy (Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2018), 4, https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/UNCLASS_2018_National_Military_Strategy_Description.pdf.
30 William J. Clinton, A National Security Strategy for a New Century (Washington, DC: The White House, October 1998), 46.https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf.
11 White House, Interim National Security Strategic Guidance (Washington, DC: White House, 2021), 7-8, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/NSC-1v2.pdf.
31 Michael P. W. Stone and Gordon R. Sullivan, Strategic Force, Strategic Vision for the 1990s and Beyond: A Statement on the Posture of the United States Army, Fiscal Year 1993, Posture Statement presented to the 102nd Cong., 2nd sess. (Washington, DC: US Department of the Army, 1992), 3.
32 Atomic Energy Act of 1946, Public Law 585, 79th Cong., 2nd sess. (August 1, 1946), 19.
33 Robert M. Gates, Quadrennial Defense Review (Washington, DC: US Department of Defense, February 2010), 19.
35 US Constitution, art. 2, sec. 1.
See below for examples of citations for unpublished sources:
36 Dylan V. Shope, “Peace Forces,” briefing slides with scripted commentary, Carlisle Barracks, PA, US Army War College, July 23, 2001.
37 Robert F. Parkison, e-mail message to author, May 2, 2002
Indicate the type of medium used to communicate the message. Electronic mail, on-line chats, Facebook, and other electronic communications are generally not considered academic or professional sources. Use sparingly and only when essential.
38 Teresa M. Takai, “Adoption of the National Information Exchange Model within the Department of Defense” (official memorandum, Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 2013), http://dodcio.defense.gov/Portals/0/Documents/2013-03- 28%20Adoption%20of%20the%20NIEM%20within%20the%20DoD.pdf.
If person interviewed is a member of the Armed Forces, show rank and branch of service. List military rank in standard abbreviated form appropriate to the specific service.
39 Governor Kirk Fordice of Mississippi, interview by author, Jackson, MS, July 23, 1996.
Telephone or Electronic Source.
40 John Abizaid, US Army, Commander, US Central Command, telephone interview by author, March 19, 2005.
Indicate whether the interview was via telephone (as above) or via another medium.
41 Interview with confidential source, February 17, 2009.
Students should explain the absence of a source’s identity briefly in the footnote. One should use unattributed interview data very sparingly and only when complete confidentiality is absolutely essential. A source must grant the author permission to quote even when the author honors confidentiality.
3 Abigail Stonerock, “Developing Executive Communication Skills” (PowerPoint presentation, U.S. Army War College, Applied Communication & Learning Lab, Carlisle Barracks, PA, July 13, 2021).
42 Douglas G. Vincent, “US Strategy in the Afghanistan Draw Down” (public speech, University of Mount Union, Alliance, OH, March 25, 2013).
1 Stephen J. Gerras, “The Big Five Personality Traits: A Primer for Senior Leaders” (Carlisle Barracks, PA: U.S. Army War College, December, 2014), 3.
43 Sam Mosely, “Foreign Policy” (lecture, US Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, PA, May 19, 1997), cited with permission of Mr. Mosely.
Statements regarding special permission are mandatory. The non-attribution policy requires specific written approval from a speaker whenever citing potentially identifying information.
34 Bertram B. Armstrong, “The Army Image” (Strategy Research Project, Carlisle Barracks, PA, US Army War College, April 10, 2000), 15.
SRPs, FSRPs, and PRPs may be available through the USAWC database, via online access, or DTIC. Other student papers, such as unpublished course papers, are generally not considered appropriate sources for inclusion in professional and academic documents.
Active and Passive Voice
Writing by strategic leaders frequently requires a greater level of economy, precision, and directness than many other forms of writing. For that reason, USAWC faculty may insist upon nearly exclusive use of the active voice (as opposed to passive voice) in student papers. If the subject of the sentence is doing something (e.g., “I am writing this sentence”), the sentence is written in active voice. If the subject of the sentence is having something done to it (e.g., “This sentence is being written by me.”), then the passive voice is in play. In active voice, the form of the verb used places the subject of the sentence in the active position: the subject performs the action rather than being acted upon. As in: “Strategic leaders must use language judiciously.”
A passive construction of the sentence reads: “Language must be used judiciously by strategic leaders.” In passive voice, the subject receives the action of the object.
Professional/academic papers are most commonly written in the third person point of view. The most effective also minimize use of personal pronouns. When personal pronouns are used, papers written in third person include the pronouns he, she, or it (third person singular) and they (third person plural) while avoiding avoid the use of I (first person singular), we (first person plural) and you (second person). Many who write in the first person (a) fail to advance intellectual arguments grounded in reason and research, (b) over estimate the importance of personal experience/opinion to a writing task, and/or (c) mistakenly equate unsupported opinion with reasoned argument. If handled appropriately, writing in the third person point of view the third person statement of “The writer of this essay proposes” (an awkward construction) or even “This paper proposes,” or “This essay will…” as papers are inanimate and cannot propose anything. Rather than using that sort of phrasing, simply launch into your argument. Don’t tell the reader what you’re going to say…just say it…
The contrast between first and third person points of view is illustrated in the following examples from the Effective Writing Lab Online (EWLO):
First Person (Informal)
Late in 2014, I observed chaos in the American media following the Sony Pictures Hack. My colleagues and I argued about what we should do to deter cyber espionage. As it now stands, companies and private citizens can do little to protect themselves beyond tightening their own cyber security. I have never seen a hacker deterred by such measures, however. I think hacking back would be the best approach, but it is illegal under current US law.
Third Person (Formal)
The Sony Pictures Hack brought cyber espionage to the forefront of the American media consciousness late in 2014, sparking debate over appropriate responses to and effective means of deterring cyber espionage. As it now stands, companies and private citizens can do little to protect themselves beyond tightening their own cyber security. Hackers, however, are seldom deterred by such measures. Active cyber defense—hacking back—may be the most effective, if not only, recourse. Unfortunately, hacking back is illegal under current US law.1
1Thomas H. Mancino, “Hacking Back: Active Cyber Defense,” The Army War College Review, May 2015.
Online Discussion Forums (Forums) are a largely asynchronous synthesis opportunity to replicate classroom seminar learning. This is one of the tools the USAWC Distance Education Program (DEP) uses to replicate classroom seminar learning for students spread across the world.
As a general rule, in USAWC Forums, students are responsible for making primary posts of approximately 250 (+/-) words to make an argument. Students would then respond to at least 1-2 posts of their classmates, responding, following up, or asking for clarification, in posts of approximately 150(+/-) words. In these responses, students can either agree, disagree, or add to the discussion points their classmates raised. This is not just a message of concurrence, but must include substantive reasons for why the student agrees or disagrees with the post.
PLEASE NOTE: Every forum has different rules of engagement, so students should be aware of and adhere to those rules of engagement, but this guidance is a good rule of thumb for primary and secondary posts within the forum.
Forum posts are an opportunity to demonstrate critical thinking, astute analysis, content mastery, and writing skill. In addition, forums are the asynchronous online version of seminar learning, and so discussion posts that do not necessarily conform to this guidance IN ADDITION TO the primary and response posts positively contribute to seminar learning, and most faculty instructors welcome this kind of discussion.
Primary posts (usually about 250-words) follow the A-S-A format (provided here) for a main body paragraph. However, students can also choose to split their posts into separate sections (for example, separating out the analysis) to make the post more readable by adding white space:
Students should write forum posts in prose, NOT in bullet points. Students may choose to present their Assertions, Support and Analysis, in separate paragraphs, or in one paragraph. Either way, in many, if not all, forums for first year studies, primary posts require an assertion(s), support, and analysis, in an effort to help students prepare for writing essays effectively. See examples here.
FIRST PERSON Analysis: Because forums provide the seminar experience for the USAWC distance program, unlike in written essays, often it may be appropriate to use first person case to relate experiences or observations to the analysis in a forum post.
Quotes: Avoid long or multiple quotes in forum posts. Instructors want to see what students know and think about the material/issue. There may be place for a short, pithy quote (5-7 words), but paraphrasing sources and using critical thinking, analysis, evaluation, and synthesis should be the goal.
FORUM CITATION FORMAT: PARENTHETICAL CITATIONS: As with written essays, it is important to appropriately credit information that is not common knowledge and which was not a student's original idea. However, unlike longer written requirements, forum posts use parenthetical citations rather than footnotes.
Students should simplify references for assigned course readings by placing in-text, parenthetical citations just after cited material, but before the closing period. These citations will include author's last name, publication date, and location information (e.g., page number, URL, or video timecode), as in:
Only use parenthetical citations for DEP forums. All other USAWC writing will use footnotes.
Outside sources: The primary sources for forums should come from assigned readings, to demonstrates a student's knowledge of the course material. In cases in which students have included outside sources, they must give the full citation inside the parenthesis, rather than the abbreviated form students may use for course materials.
Citations do not count toward the wordcount (forum or short essay).
A forum post can one paragraph, or as many as four paragraphs. In any case, a primary forum post should have at minimum:
Example of a Three-Paragraph Forum Post (250-Word Forum post +/- 10%):
In his work to obtain support for the surge in Iraq, President Bush displayed two key emotional intelligence competencies, namely empathy and teamwork.
President Bush’s exercise of the emotional intelligence competency of empathy helped to ensure the surge’s success. According to Goleman, empathy entails considering others’ feelings when making decisions, and then working those feelings into the overall response (Goleman, et al., 2013, 50). For example, while attempting to solicit support from the joint chiefs for the surge, Bush heeded their concern over troop strain and increased the size of both the Army and Marine Corps while also assigning more State Department civilians to Iraq (Barnes, 2008, 23). The president did not just display empathy to appease the joint chiefs; rather, he knew that such empathy would help advance his overall cause.
In pursuit of the surge strategy, President Bush demonstrated mastery of key emotional intelligence competencies, underscoring the power of emotional intelligence to aid a strategic leader’s bid for effective leadership and mission accomplishment.
Here are examples of the different types of papers USAWC students will write. Click a button to view an example of that paper type. Templates are available from each example page.
You may view the Position Paper example on this page, or click the button to download a copy of it.
Download Position Paper TemplateBelow is a general representation of the format for a Position Paper.
NOTE: Measurements, margins, fonts, and other style changes may occur due to browser, monitor, or window size changes. The downloadable template, available by clicking the above link, will format your paper correctly for the DEP course.
POSITION PAPER
Date
FOR: Identify the recipient (specific position) of the position paper
SUBJECT: Clearly and succinctly specify the topic of the position paper. Use specific descriptions that summarize the content, avoiding vague, one-word subjects. Do not introduce acronyms in the subject line. (1-2 lines)
1. PURPOSE. State what this position paper seeks to do, keeping it focused on the desired outcome (1 sentence)
2. POSITION. Clearly state your position on the issue without justifications. (1-2 sentences)
3. KEY POINTS. (1 sentence per bullet)
a. Clearly and succinctly state the main points of your argument that justify the stated position. Key points should stand alone without requiring subordinate points.
b. Present each key point in the same order it will appear in the Discussion section to help the recipient connect the key point with its more detailed discussion.
c. Consider that a busy senior leader may only have time to read the Key Points section.
4. DISCUSSION. (1 paragraph per bullet)
a. Clearly and succinctly explain each key point using evidence in the order as the road map above in complete, but succinct bulleted paragraphs. Include information that the recipient needs to know to understand each key point and why that information is important for the recipient to have (e.g., significance). Tailor the discussion to the needs and knowledge of the reader. Do not include background information the recipient already knows unless that information is essential for the logical flow.
b. Present information in logically organized way to allow a busy recipient to quickly and easily digest the information (e.g., chronological, systemic, problem-solution, general to specific).
c. Use short, concise sentences in the active voice. The tone should be neutral, clear, and direct in nature. Limit sentences to one thought. Use short, simple words. Avoid using acronyms and jargon.
5. ALTERNATIVE VIEWPOINTS. Briefly present accurately and objectively any opposing viewpoints or counterarguments, such as those of other stakeholders. (1 paragraph)
6. REBUTTAL. Briefly refute opposing viewpoints, explaining why you disagree with their viewpoints in a way that reinforces your position without simply restating it (i.e., why your position is more valid). (1 paragraph)
7. WAY AHEAD. Describe the specific actions the author wants the recipient to take to advocate or advance the recommended position.
You may view the Information Paper example on this page, or click the button to download a copy of it.
Download Information Paper TemplateBelow is a general representation of the format for an Information Paper.
NOTE: Measurements, margins, fonts, and other style changes may occur due to browser, monitor, or window size changes. The downloadable template, available by clicking the above link, will format your paper correctly for the DEP course.
INFORMATION PAPER
Date
FOR: Identify the recipient (specific position) of the information paper
SUBJECT: Clearly and succinctly specify the issue the paper discusses. Use specific description that summarizes the content, avoiding vague, one-word subjects. Clarifying the subject can help in organizing the presenting the most relevant information clearly. Do not introduce acronyms in the subject line. (1-2 lines)
1. PURPOSE. State what this information paper seeks to do (1 sentence)
2. POSITION. Clearly state your position on the issue without justifications. (1-2 sentences)
3. DISCUSSION
a. Clearly and succinctly present information that the reader needs to know about the subject. Explain why it is important for the recipient to have this information.
b. Structure main points and supporting ideas in complete but succinct bulleted paragraphs. The bullets indicate divisions and relationships among concepts.
1) Use sub-bullets to illustrate significant supporting ideas that expand on the main bullet paragraph.
c. The organization of information should flow from the subject, audience, and purpose. Organize the information by presenting the most important information first, unless information is necessary for the reader to understand the main point. Each bulleted paragraph should logically flow to the next.
d. Use short, concise sentences in the active voice. The tone should be neutral, clear, and direct in nature. Limit sentences to one thought. Use short, simple words. Avoid using acronyms, abbreviations, and jargon.
You may view the Research Paper Guide on this page, or click the button to download a copy of it.
Below is a general representation of the format for a Research Paper.
NOTE: Measurements, margins, fonts, and other style changes may occur due to browser, monitor, or window size changes. The downloadable template, available by clicking the above link, will format your paper correctly for the DEP course.
RESEARCH PAPER
There are many different ways to organize an effective research paper, depending on the analytical framework that the author uses to investigate the question. Students should talk with their Project Advisor (PA) about the organization that makes the most sense for their individual Strategic Research Requirement (SRR). Below is a guide that will be useful for most research papers that students will complete at the USAWC.
Introduction
The introduction should allow the reader to quickly understand what the research project is about, and why that topic is important enough for the reader to understand the results of this research. Research is fundamentally different from an editorial or opinion essay (in which the author states a preconceived thesis and then argues that their thesis is correct). In research, the author poses a question to which (prior to conducting the research) they did not know the answer, then presents the evidence that led them to a particular thesis. As such, the introduction should be the last part of the paper that the author writes: after they have completed their analysis and developed recommendations on the basis of their research.
The introduction should include a hook that grabs the audience’s attention and makes them want to continue reading. A reader should understand why the topic is important enough for someone to commit the effort of research to it. The introduction must clearly state the question that the researcher is attempting to answer with this project. It should also describe the answer that the researcher came to as a result of their analysis. Typically, the introduction ends with a roadmap of how the author has organized the rest of the paper.
Background
The background section frames the problem or puzzle that the author is addressing. It gives an intelligent reader who may have no previous experience with this issue enough information to understand the context. It describes why the issue is puzzling or challenging, and how events have transpired in the past that impact the present day. Usually, the background also describes the work that other subject matter experts have done that relates to the puzzle, and why that prior work is not adequate to answer the specific research question that is the subject of this project.
Analytical Framework (or "Methodology")
This section explains how the author will attempt to answer the research question. Since research is, by definition, a systematic inquiry, this section explains what system the author has chosen to use and why. At the USAWC, many projects use an Operational Design framework to study a problem. Many others compare different case studies, in which they select three to four criteria by which they assess each case (e.g., different strategies or choices by strategic leaders) and then compare the results of each case against those criteria.
In many research projects, the researcher begins with a hypothesis (educated guess) about what the answer to their research question will be, and then tests that hypothesis against the available evidence. Often the most convincing answers come from a framework where the author attempts to rigorously prove that their hypothesis is wrong; after which, if all the evidence still points to the hypothesis being true, then there is strong reason to believe that it must be so. This section explains the author’s hypothesis and the ways they will try to disprove it.
Evidence
After explaining the analytical framework in the previous section, the evidence section adds the information to the framework. If the author is comparing different case studies against specific criteria, in this section they will explain the cases and how each one “scores” for the different criteria. In a simple example, a project that sought to understand whether the attack is stronger than the defense might include a series of battles and assess whether the attacker or defender most often wins. The evidence section would include a brief description of each battle and a clear statement of which side won and lost.
Analysis
The analysis section is where the author interprets the results of the evidence. When one filters the best available evidence through the analytical framework, what does it tell the researcher? What is the answer to the research question? Most often, the evidence could point in more than one direction; in this section the author should help readers to understand which direction is the most convincing and why.
Recommendations and Risk
Given the answer that the analysis provides to the research question, what should someone do based on the answer to the question? Who should do it? What should strategic leaders definitely not do now that they know the answer to the research question. What are the risks of implementing your proposed recommendation(s)? Are there ways to mitigate those risks? Conversely, what are the risks of doing the wrong thing, or nothing at all?
Conclusion
The conclusion should briefly summarize the argument that the author has made, and then suggest ways that others can provide even more new knowledge about this important topic. What else would be useful to understand about the issue? It describes new questions that may have arisen as a result of this project, or that might arise in the future given new developments in the world. This is the section that future USAWC students will look to in order to develop their own research questions.
You may view the Policy Paper example on this page, or click here to download the template.
Download Policy Paper TemplateBelow is a general representation of the format for a Policy Paper.
NOTE: Measurements, margins, fonts, and other style changes may occur due to browser, monitor, or window size changes. The downloadable template, available by clicking the above link, will format your paper correctly for the DEP course.
POLICY PAPER
Date
SUBJECT: Clearly and succinctly specify the issue in the policy paper. Use specific description that summarizes content, avoiding vague one-word subjects. Clarifying the subject can help organizing and presenting the most relevant information clearly. Do not introduce acronyms in the subject line.
BLUF: Briefly summarize the key takeaway from the paper. (3-4 lines)
Recommendation(s): Succinctly state the specific action the recipient should take in short, direct, concise statements.
1. If recommending multiple actions, list them as discreet, enumerated items.
Background: Present only relevant background information that the recipient needs to know to understand the discussion below. It should only include essential information or information the recipient does not already know. It may provide the context for the policy options (i.e., why the author prepared the paper). The author should structure the paragraphs succinctly and completely, using short, concise sentences. The Background section can be 1-2 paragraphs depending on memo length.
Discussion: Fully but concisely analyze policy options, explaining clearly the differences between policy options and evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of each option. Identify any associated risks with each option, and describe how to mitigate any negative consequences. Identify how policy options align with, or would require adjustments to, current policies. Indicate any additional needed resources to implement a decision. Identify different or opposing views among stakeholders, and summarize options for resolving those differences and implications of those options.
Authors should use sufficient evidence to support analysis. Authors should write the discussion in complete, succinct paragraphs, using short, concise sentences in active voice. Sub-headings can help to facilitate readability.
This appendix provides USAWC formatting specifications for written products in USAWC academic programs. Consult The Chicago Manual of Style, USAWC's official style guide, for additional guidance on punctuation, grammar, and usage not described below.
All student papers should be in English and must conform to the following:
Spell out United States as a noun. US is used for the adjective form only.
The currency of the United States is the US dollar.Spell out acronyms the first time it appears in the paper, and follow immediately with the acronym in parentheses behind it.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was founded in 1949 with collective defense a key cornerstone of the alliance. Enshrined in Article 5, an attack on one NATO member is considered an attack on all NATO members.Block quotes are for quotes greater than four lines of text. Students should single-space, indent, and left-justify block quotations. Indention occurs on the right side of a block quotation as well. Position a citation number at the end of the last line quoted. Block quotations do not use quotation marks. USAWC Templates have pre-formatted style for block quotes (under the Home tab). NOTE: The DDE discourages the use of block quotations, due to the abbreviated length of the paper; the DDE encourages focusing on analysis of the subject rather than lengthy quoted support.
As Ike Skelton observed:The constancy with which the United States carried out its global responsibilities over the long course of the Cold War is a great testimony to the character of the American people and to the quality of the leaders who guided the Nation through often trying times. In spite of the cost, in the face of great uncertainties and despite grave distractions, our nation showed the ability to persevere. In doing so, we answered the great question that Winston Churchill once famously posed: "Will America stay the course?" The answer is, we did.1
Capitalize civil, military, religious, and professional titles when they immediately precede a personal name as part of the name. Titles are normally lowercase when following a name or used in place of name.
General Ulysses S. Grant was a military general while President Lincoln was the president.
Capitalize the full names of legislative and deliberative bodies, departments, bureaus, and offices. Adjectives derived from them are usually in lowercase.
A footnote number appears at the end of a sentence or at the end of a clause following punctuation. A footnote number normally follows a quotation mark.
Identify military units by official designation/titles only.
10th Mountain Division
Identify individuals/units first by their full names and titles and then with the shortened form.
Major General David Hill is the commandant of the US Army War College (USAWC). MG Hill sets the direction for USAWC to develop strategic leaders and advance knowledge.The use of headings is not typically encouraged in USAWC writing. For example: Never include an unnecessary heading labeled "Introduction" at the start of the paper.
Some USAWC courses may assign a paper which includes essay responses to multiple questions. In this case, headings help identify which essay goes with which question. Therefore, if your paper consists of separate essay responses to multiple questions, you should include a heading in bold before the essay for each question.
Paper Title
Question #1:
An essay responding to the first question of this paper. The first line of this text should be indented, as in any normal paragraph. When you have finished answering Question #1, you should include a heading for Question #2.
Question #2:
An essay responding to the second question of this paper. Be aware that not all papers should have headings.
Write out words for zero through nine and all numbers that appear as the first or last word in a sentence. Within sentences, use numeric digits for numbers 10 and higher.
Twelve Army officers each ran one mile on 25 different occasions. The total number of miles for each officer was twenty-five.Write out the word percent rather than using the symbol %.
Operations and maintenance accounted for about 40 percent of military spending in FY2021.Word count does not include footnotes, endnotes, or front matter (e.g., titles, abstracts, forms). Generally speaking, student work can be +/-10 percent of the stated word length.
This section defines key communication terms and concepts that students will likely encounter in their academic programs. The section provides a common lexicon for students and faculty to use when designing and completing communicative assignments and providing and discussing feedback. For tips and tutorials on how to improve in these areas, please consult the ACL Lab Online SharePoint site.
An abstract is a short, self-contained paragraph that gives an overview of a written product’s thesis, main points, conclusion, and recommendations. Readers use abstracts to decide whether to read the written product and/or determine its utility for a research effort. An abstract is usually 150 to 250 words; authors should write it after a paper is complete.
Senior Service Colleges (SSC) and institutions of Joint Professional Military Education (JPME) need a fresh approach to the role of research and writing in preparing senior officers for strategic responsibility. SSC students have the insights and abilities to become some of the most important contributors to ideas on national security, yet they are often hampered by lack of preparation and the assumption that they cannot write, nor learn to write, in ways that could affect the strategic landscape. Changing the culture of JPME to prioritize the transformation of SSC students from warriors to “warrior-scholars” will help JPME to better serve students, the Services, and the Nation. Though JPME is often criticized for shortcomings, actionable guidance for meaningful change is seldom offered. Four considerations are recommended in support of a culture in which SSC student scholarship is valued, encouraged, and nurtured to produce well-informed strategic leaders who can think and are capable of writing effectively at will.1
1Abstract for Larry D. Miller and Laura A. Wackwitz, “Strategic Leader Research: Answering the Call,” Joint Force Quarterly, 97, (2nd Quarter, 2020), 39-46.
An annotated bibliography is an organized list of sources (with associated citations) that briefly summarizes and evaluates each source, including how the source may be useful for a research project. Writing an annotated bibliography can help a researcher think critically about their sources and prove the quality of their research sources. An annotated bibliography can be part of a larger research project or a stand-alone product.
Applied communication focuses on the study of an issue or problem with the primary purpose of identifying solutions and recommendations to address the issue. The hallmarks of applied communication are the study of topics with strategic relevance and identifying ways to improve the practice of communication. Scholars and practitioners typically look through an applied lens because of a desire to conduct research that makes a difference and impacts those outside academia. Students ground their applied communication in theory as a way to find ways to communicate recommendations and connect them to stakeholders related to the strategic issue.
Well-reasoned arguments elevate and strengthen communication. An argument is a defensible position or claim (also called thesis), in which authors support the argument with well-documented and articulated evidence. Authors must (a) clearly articulate the arguments advanced, (b) identify the intellectual roots of their work, (c) ground declarative statements in appropriate evidence, (d) organize arguments in a fashion conducive to deductive reasoning and enhanced reader understanding, and, in the process (e) acknowledge and address counter arguments.
The Assertion-Support-Analysis (A-S-A) model is an effective way to structure paragraphs.
See also, the "Assertion-Support-Analysis (ASA) Framework" page.
The audience is the recipient or target of a communicative effort. Knowing the audience helps communicators make decisions about what information to include, how to arrange it, and what kind of supporting details are necessary to inform or persuade the reader or listener. An effective communicator must analyze their intended audience to learn what they already know, what they need to know, why they need to know it, and how they can help the audience. Understanding the audience’s interests and attitudes also helps the communicator tailor the content, language, and style of their communication in a way that helps achieve the intended outcome.
A bibliography is an alphabetically ordered listing of references that facilitates quick identification of sources in a document. Footnotes normally precede Bibliographies by footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical citations in the body of paper. Unless the course author’s directions say otherwise, DDE course papers typically do not include a bibliography. Students may prepare a preliminary bibliography of relevant materials to help guide their research process.
Following the introduction, the body of the paper presents evidence in a logical sequence in a series of well-structured body paragraphs that convince the reader of the validity of the thesis. In other words, body paragraphs elaborate on and explain the main points of the thesis. Body paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence that describes what the paragraph; each paragraph expands on only one topic. In argumentative writing, topic sentences typically serve as the assertion in the body paragraph, and echo one of the main points of the argument.
A citation is a reference to the source of information in a communicative product. Citations give proper credit to the authors of words or ideas students have used in the paper, establish credibility that the work is part of a broader body of knowledge, and provide others with the information necessary to locate cited sources.
See also, the "Citations" page.
Clarity is of utmost importance in national security communication. Communicators can improve clarity by using active voice, strong verbs, transitional words, and parallel constructions, while avoiding vague words, jargon, and nominalizations (i.e., the noun form of verbs). Using simple, direct language in short sentences can also improve clarity.
Coherence refers to macro-level flow and unity where all ideas work together as a unified whole. Essentially, it is the organization and progression of ideas and how clear and easy those ideas are to understand. In coherent communication, the audience can follow easily from one major idea to the next without confusing jumps in the communicator’s train of thought. A communicator can build coherence by crafting outlines and reverse outlines, clear thesis statements, and topic sentences; ensuring all ideas in a paragraph relate to the topic sentence and all topic sentences relate to the thesis statement; analyzing the audience and purpose of a communication product; and enlisting peer reviews.
Similar to coherence, cohesion refers to micro-level flow and unity where ideas link together at the sentence level. Cohesion helps build coherence by making relationships between ideas evident and clear. Without cohesion, the audience must make connections between apparently disconnected ideas. A communicator can strengthen cohesion by using transitions, parallel structures, reference words (e.g., this, which, it), repeated words, etc.
The goal of concision is to communicate an idea using only the number of words necessary to convey it clearly. Concise communication is livelier and easier for the audience to digest, while wordiness is harder to understand. To communicate concisely, authors should delete words that do not add meaning, such as “there are” or “actually,” and redundant phrases, such as “end result.” Communicators can also look for ways to reduce wordy phrases to a single word, such as changing “in the event of” to “if.”
A well-written conclusion in a paper or presentation does more than simply summarize the thesis and main points; it synthesizes the key points and explains the significance, broader context, or implications of the argument. A conclusion should not introduce new information.
A content note provides supplemental information that relates to but is slightly outside the scope of a paper’s argument. A content note should not include information essential to the paper’s argument. It appears as a footnote at the bottom of a page and includes source documentation as appropriate. A reader should always read content notes, as they may contain useful insights or information.
Consequently, a second force consists of internal stakeholders who expand those formal duties with opinions of other, non-written responsibilities. For example, superiors, subordinates, and peers within the organization expect senior leaders to behave in ways that advance that group’s personal interests.13
13 The alignment between personal and organizational interests is a critical leadership function. Peter Senge suggests that such alignment is the essence of an organizational vision. Peter Senge, The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (New York: Currency, 2006), 191-215.
Data visualization is the presentation of data in pictorial or graphical formats, such as charts, tables, graphs, geospatial maps, infographics, and dashboards, to communicate complex data relationships and data-driven insights. Data visualizations can generate ideas, identify patterns and trends, illustrate ideas, and tell a story. Well-crafted data visualizations have proper labeling and accurate focus and contextualization. Poorly crafted data visualizations misrepresent or distort data, which can result in the audience misinterpreting the information.
The strength of a paper or presentation depends on the strength and sufficiency of the evidence to support its arguments and develop the overall thesis. Authors support each main point with high quality evidence derived from credible sources. Credible evidence (a) grounds itself in valid, reliable and properly referenced information, (b) supports additional evidence, (c) assumes false evidence prior to its incorporation—by looking at the negative, authors can find flaws in their own reasoning and develop arguments to refute counterclaims, (d) clearly and logically connects to the thesis or claim, and (e) places itself in context within the larger professional and academic discussion.
Evidence may come from primary or secondary sources. Primary sources are original materials on which authors base subsequent research. They present information in its original form, that other writers have neither interpreted, condensed, nor evaluated by other writers. Primary sources may include personal accounts, original contemporary research, or government documents. Secondary sources provide commentary upon, interpretation of, or analysis of primary sources. They put primary sources in context. Secondary sources can include scholarly books, articles, and biographies. For example, the US National Security Strategy is a primary source, while a think tank’s critical analysis of the US National Security Strategy would constitute a secondary source.
Evaluating sources is a critical component of finding, collecting, and analyzing evidence to support an argument. To evaluate the strength and appropriateness of a source, consider its authority (who wrote the material?), accuracy (is this fact or opinion?), currency (does it capture contemporary thinking?), objectivity (for what purpose did the author create it?), and coverage (is it relevant?).
Artificial intelligence (AI) tools use artificial intelligence and large language models to generate original text, images, movies, and music from a prompt. ChatGPT, one of the most widely known generative AI tools, works by analyzing a large dataset of text and learning the patterns and relationships between words and phrases, which the system calls tokens, to create a response to a question the user has posed. In other words, most AI writing tools, like ChatGPT, generate text using the mathematical relationships between the tokens in extremely large training databases. The output of these generative AI tools often gives the illusion of comprehension and agency, but these tools have neither.
In its current stage, generative AI has several limitations. For example, it is limited by the data to which it has access. Many modern models have access to the broader internet, which often includes information from less credible sources, like social media. In addition, the content they generate is not always accurate and may include unrelated or made-up sources or improper citations. The utility of generative text-based AI tools depends on the quality of the questions and a user’s ability to evaluate the content the AI produced and the sources it used to generate that content.
See Section VII for guidance on citing AI-generated content and Appendix A for guidance on permissible use of generative AI tools.
Headings demarcate paper sections to facilitate readability. Headings logically follow a paper’s organization and signal important transitions for the reader. Short papers do not require headings, they but may be helpful. See Section IX for formatting headings.
A hook is a statement at the beginning of a paper or presentation that grabs the audience’s attention and makes them want to continue reading or listening. It should relate to the thesis. Crafting an effective hook requires understanding the audience and what will resonate with them and the purpose of the communicative effort. Some common hooks in strategic leader communication include revealing a misconception or knowledge gap, an interesting fact, statistics, and strategic significance of the topic. In oral presentations, personal or humanizing anecdotes can also be effective. NOTE: Due to the low word count DDE students have with which to answer the questions in the course papers, it is usually not necessarily or appropriate to use a hook in DDE writing assignments.
The introduction sets up the paper or presentation for the audience. It should hook their attention, provide the strategic context for the topic, and preview the paper or presentation’s argument, while avoiding overgeneralizations, non-essential background information, and lengthy descriptions. Typically, the introduction ends with the thesis statement that outlines the paper or presentation’s structure.
In communication, a message is the key point or bottom line that a communicator wants to convey to their audience. In academic writing, the core message is the thesis statement. In professional communication, it is the key takeaway. How the author has framed a message an impact how the audience perceives and interprets information. Framing a message that is appropriate and effective for the intended audience requires analyzing that audience and the purpose of the communicative effort.
A narrative is a compelling story line that can explain events convincingly and from which the audience draws inferences. At the strategic level, a strategic narrative is the means for political actors to construct a shared meaning of the past, present, and future of international politics to shape the behavior of domestic and international actors. A narrative is relatively enduring and drives communication themes and messages. Themes are distinct, unifying ideas that support the narrative and provide guidance and continuity for messaging, while messages are discreet, tailored information for specific audiences and delivered through words, actions, or images.
Effective organization maximizes argument development, message impact, and audience understanding. Presenting information in a concise, logically organized way helps the audience to quickly and easily digest information. Common organizational schemes include:
Outlines are a useful tool to organize ideas, visualize the potential structure, flesh out and develop points, and logically connect information to the thesis before writing a paper or presentation. Outlines organize information in the order in which the author will present information in a paper or presentation with the main points and evidence that support the thesis. It is helpful to have a working thesis statement before beginning an outline.
Some common types of outlines are topic outlines, sentence outlines, question outlines, and reverse outlines. A topic outline organizes main ideas using only words or phrases without any details, while a sentence outline uses complete sentences that fully express each main point. These sentences often become topic sentences. A question outline structures the outline around questions about the main ideas to help a communicator develop topic sentences. Lastly, a reverse outline creates the outline from a draft to make visible its structure and to ensure the main points connect to and support the thesis in the of the revision process.
To draft a question outline:
To create a reverse outline:
Authors who paraphrase use their own words to express another’s ideas. Paraphrasing is an important art to master, as it enables communicators to incorporate other’s ideas to strengthen their claims while giving the original source proper credit. Paraphrase requires a full re-stating of another author’s position in new words; one cannot simply rearrange words into a new order or replace words with synonyms in the original order. Authors should strive to reach a higher level of Bloom’s Taxonomy by proving the ability to summarize the concepts in different words. Effective use of paraphrase prevents authors from overusing direct quotations, a practice which detracts from an author’s argument, and most evaluators associate such overuse with weak writing. A citation must accompany paraphrased text.
Point of view is the perspective from which the author writes an essay. In academic writing, papers are generally in the third person point of view, where the author does not refer to themselves. Using the third person point of view demonstrates grounding in research, rather than one’s personal perspective, giving it more credibility and objectivity. There may be times (and academic disciplines) when first person point of view is appropriate, such as reflective essays or proper language usage. For example, “I propose” is preferable to “The writer of this essay proposes.”
Quoting is using the exact words of another author. Students should only use quotations when the original author has written or said something in such a way that to paraphrase it would weaken the quality or unique character of the author’s words. This should occur only rarely; paraphrasing is almost always the better option. Block quotations are quotes longer than four lines of text. Authors should indent and single-space block quotations not use quotation marks for them. NOTE: due to the length constraints for DDE papers, students should refrain from using long quotations.
Students should use direct quotations sparingly so that the text primarily reflects one’s own words and thinking. Too many quotations can clutter a text or interrupt its flow. When using quotes, communicators should use quotation marks (except in block quotes), provide context and lead-in for the text, and properly attribute and cite it. See Section IX for formatting a block quotation.
Research is the systematic inquiry into a subject to create new knowledge and/or to use existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies, and understandings. It involves asking a question; collecting, documenting, analyzing, and interpreting information using suitable methodologies; and, reporting the results. Good writers ground their research in historical and/or theoretical concepts that surround the issue under investigation, high-quality evidence from source materials, and detailed and accurate source documentation.
Conducting research builds cognitive and communication skills expected of strategic leaders, such as the ability to identify, structure, and scope a complex problem/question; analyze, synthesize, and evaluate relevant information; and draw conclusions and make recommendations for a decision-maker based on that information.
Summarizing boils down the main points into a more concise version of the original text. It involves deleting extraneous material, highlighting key points, synthesizing overall meaning, and condensing primary ideas, while remaining faithful to the original source’s meaning and emphasis. Summarizing is a useful tool for providing background, context, or supporting evidence. A citation is a must for summarized text.
The thesis is the primary argument or overarching position in a paper. A strong thesis is (a) interesting—it captures attention by addressing an important issue, (b) arguable—it addresses a topic worthy of interrogation or debate (c) defensible—has support in grounded evidence, and (d) clear—it is concise, with enough specificity to avoid over-generalizations and vague propositions.
A thesis statement is a one or two sentence articulation of the thesis. Located near the beginning of the paper, a thesis statement is often the response to an inquiry (e.g., assignment prompt, research question). A closed thesis statement consists of the central claim, or position, and the reasons that support the claim in the order in which the author presents them, while an open statement only consists of the claim. These supporting reasons constitute an essay map, which signals to the reader the structure and sequence of the argument, helping the audience follow the argument. In a closed thesis statement, the essay map is part of the thesis statement, while in an open thesis statement, the essay map often follows the thesis statement.
The thesis statement is marked in green, underlined text.
The essay Map is marked in blue, bold text.
Economic sanctions are ineffective vehicles for achieving political objectives at the international level because they often strengthen an adversary's resolve, contribute to corruption and organized crime, and create humanitarian crises.
Transitions establish relationships and logical connections between ideas in sentences, paragraphs, and sections. They are more than verbal decorations; transitions are words and phrases with particular meanings that tell the audience how to think about and react to the information in a particular way. Transitions promote coherence and cohesion in a written product or oral presentation.
Active voice is when the subject of the sentence is performing the action. Passive voice is when the subject of the sentence is receiving the action.
The subject performs the action on the object.
"Strategic leaders must use language judiciously."
The subject is acted upon by the object.
"Language must be used judiciously by strategic leaders."
The choice of active vs. passive voice focuses attention on particular elements of a sentence. The author should use voice to direct attention to the part of the sentence that is the most important. Active voice is generally the stronger, clearer, and more economical choice; therefore, when in doubt, students should opt for the active voice. However, passive voice, when used appropriately, can add to sentence strength, increase understanding, and direct the reader’s attention to important elements that active voice construction may downplay.
In some areas (for example ASA and short essays), the DEP CAD Addendum (DCA) provides greater detail on the expectations for DEP students in areas that the CAD also addresses. However, the following are areas the DCA does not address. DEP students should become familiar with the CAD as well as the DCA. These sections of the CAD are particularly or potentially useful for DEP students:
| Discussion of Plagiarism | Pages 26-28 |
| Position Paper Template | Page 52 |
| Talking Points Template | Page 53 |
| A generalized Rubric for the entire War College for the Course Evaluation Report (CER) | Pages 8-10 |
| Active vs. Passive Voice | Pages 22 |
| Retention of Student Work | Page 31 |
| Abstract | Page 14 |
| Block Quotations | Page 19-20 |
| Epigraph | Page 37 |
| Headings | Page 38 |
| Tables and Figures | Pages 38-39 |
